How to Use Relative Clauses in English
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
Paris, which is the capital of France, is known for its cuisine.
The reason why he left remains a mystery.
Paris, which is the capital of France, is known for its cuisine.
The reason why he left remains a mystery.
These bolded sections are relative clauses—grammatical structures that modify nouns by providing additional information about them.
What Are Relative Clauses?
These dependent clauses function like adjectives, describing and specifying nouns and noun phrases in sentences.
Relative clauses are subordinate clauses that modify nouns or noun phrases by providing additional descriptive information. Also called adjective clauses, they function similarly to adjectives but can convey more complex information.
Unlike simple adjectives that typically appear before nouns (the tall building), relative clauses always follow the nouns they modify (the building that was recently renovated).
Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive Clauses
The distinction between these two types affects both meaning and punctuation in significant ways.
Restrictive (Defining) Clauses
These clauses provide essential information that defines or identifies the noun being described.
Restrictive clauses contain information that is necessary to understand which specific person, thing, or group the speaker is referring to. Without this information, the sentence would have a different meaning.
Examples
- "The book that I bought yesterday is excellent." (Specifies which book)
- "Students who complete all assignments will receive extra credit." (Specifies which students)
- "The car that has a red stripe belongs to me." (Specifies which car)
Key characteristics:
- No commas separate them from the rest of the sentence
- Removing them changes the meaning of the sentence
- Often answer the question "Which one?"
Non-Restrictive (Non-Defining) Clauses
These clauses provide additional, non-essential information that could be removed without changing the core meaning.
Non-restrictive clauses add extra information about a noun that is already identified. This information is supplementary and could be removed without affecting the basic meaning of the sentence.
Examples
- "My brother, who lives in Boston, is visiting next week." (Extra information about the brother)
- "Paris, which is the capital of France, attracts millions of tourists." (Extra information about Paris)
- "Dr. Smith, whom I met last year, gave an interesting lecture." (Extra information about Dr. Smith)
Key characteristics:
- Set off by commas
- Removing them doesn't change the core meaning
- Often provide background or supplementary details
Relative Pronouns: Introducing Relative Clauses
These special pronouns connect the clause to the noun it modifies while serving a grammatical role within the clause.
Relative clauses are typically introduced by relative pronouns:
| Pronoun | Used for | Example |
|---|---|---|
| who | people (subject) | "The woman who called is my sister." |
| whom | people (object) | "The man whom I met is a doctor." |
| whose | possession | "The boy whose bike was stolen filed a report." |
| which | things, animals (restrictive and non-restrictive) | "The book which I read was fascinating." |
| that | people, things (restrictive only) | "The car that broke down is mine." |
Relative Adverbs in Relative Clauses
These adverbs introduce clauses that modify nouns related to time, place, or reason.
Sometimes relative clauses are introduced by relative adverbs:
| Adverb | Replaces | Example |
|---|---|---|
| where | in/at which place | "The house where I grew up has been sold." |
| when | at/on which time | "I'll never forget the day when we first met." |
| why | for which reason | "I don't understand the reason why he left." |
The Structure of Relative Clauses
These clauses follow consistent patterns that help maintain clarity in complex sentences.
A relative clause always follows this structural pattern:
- Appears immediately after the noun it modifies
- Begins with a relative pronoun or adverb
- Contains its own subject and verb (unless the relative pronoun is the subject)
Examples analyzing structure
"The movie [that we watched] was terrible."
- Modifies: "movie"
- Relative pronoun: "that" (object of "watched")
- Subject of clause: "we"
- Verb of clause: "watched"
"The woman [who lives upstairs] plays the piano."
- Modifies: "woman"
- Relative pronoun: "who" (subject of "lives")
- Verb of clause: "lives"
Omitting Relative Pronouns
In certain constructions, relative pronouns can be omitted while maintaining meaning.
In some cases, the relative pronoun can be omitted, particularly when:
- It's a restrictive clause
- The relative pronoun is the object (not the subject) of the clause
Examples
- "The book [that] I read was fascinating." (object pronoun omitted)
- "The man [whom] I saw yesterday is here." (object pronoun omitted)
However, relative pronouns cannot be omitted when:
- They're the subject of the relative clause
- They appear in non-restrictive clauses
- They're preceded by a preposition
Common Errors with Relative Clauses
Understanding these common mistakes helps writers avoid confusing constructions.
Confusion between "who" and "whom"
- "Who" is for subjects: "The person who called you left a message."
- "Whom" is for objects: "The person whom you called left a message."
Incorrect placement
Relative clauses should immediately follow the noun they modify to avoid ambiguity:
Clarity Examples
- Unclear: "I saw a dog in the park that was wearing a sweater." (Which was wearing the sweater—the park or the dog?)
- Clear: "I saw a dog that was wearing a sweater in the park."
Using "which" and "that" inappropriately
- "That" is generally preferred for restrictive clauses about things
- "Which" is required for non-restrictive clauses about things and optional for restrictive clauses
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